Fact Sheet on Holocaust Rescue

Fact Sheet: Aid and Rescue of Jews in Europe and Survival by Country, 1933-1945

Compiled by Eric Saul

Updated October 8, 2017

The purpose of this document is to provide an overview of the number of Jews who survived the Holocaust by country and by region.  Included is a list of countries ranked from the highest percentage of survival to the lowest.  Also included is a summary of some of the factors that contributed to the survival rate of Jews.  We have also included some examples of mass rescue.  These include rescue by diplomats, state officials, church officials, rescue networks and organizations.  A number of rescue networks spanned different countries and regions.  Please see the bibliography that we have included in this document. 

“If you save the life of one person, it is as if you saved the world entire.”

- Talmud

Estimated number of Jews in Europe as of 1933:  9,500,000.[1]  This represented 1.7% of the total population of Europe.

Number of Jews in Europe as of September 1939: 9,067,800-9,797,000 (rounded).[2]

Estimated number of Jews who survived the war in Europe (not including neutral European countries): 3,207,800-4,201,000 (rounded).[3] 

Jews who resided in neutral European countries as of 1933: 435,700-442,700.[4]  Proportion of Jews in Europe who lived in neutral countries as of 1933: 4.6-4.7%

Estimated percent of Jews who survived the war in Europe (not including neutral European countries): 35-43%.[5]

Estimated number of Jews who survived in Europe, including neutral countries: 3,643,500-4,643,700.[6]

Estimated number of Jews who survived in Nazi occupied zones: 1-2 million.[7]

Number of Jews who were able to successfully emigrate from Europe through Lisbon, Portugal, Milan, Italy, Marseilles, France, Hamburg, Germany: 810,000.[8]

Estimated number of people who helped Jews throughout Europe: 500,000-1,000,000.[9]  The number of Poles who aided Jews is estimated to be between 160,000-300,000, or 1-2.5% of the population of Poland.[10]  Each rescue of a Jew often involved more than just one individual.  Often, whole families would hide and shelter a Jew.  Sometimes, an entire village would participate in hiding a number of Jews.  Some Jewish refugees would travel from country to country, where they were helped by various rescue networks and individuals.  In some cases, a Jew on the run could be aided by as many as 25 individuals.

Estimated number of Jews murdered in the Holocaust: 5,100,000[11] (rounded)-5,820,960[12].

Number of people who rescued or aided Jews who were executed: unknown.  Number compiled by the Main Commission for Investigation of Nazi Crimes in Poland: 872 Poles.  Several hundred more were killed in mass executions.[13]

Number of Jews who aided or rescued fellow Jews: Unknown. There were thousands of Jewish rescuers and hundreds of rescue and relief organizations throughout Europe and the Free World.[14]

Number of persons honored as Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem as of January 2017:  26,513 (see chart below).

Percentage of Jews who Survived by Country (Estimated)

• Jews of Bulgaria – 100% (50,000; not including Thrace and Macedonia)[15]  In March, 1943, 11,000 Jews from the Bulgarian controlled areas of Macedonia, Thrace and Pirot were deported to Treblinka and murdered.[16] 20 Bulgarians have been honored for rescuing Jews.[17]  King Boris III, of Bulgaria, cancelled the plan by the government to comply with German authority in the action to deport Jews from Bulgaria.  No Jews were deported from Bulgaria.  His decision was influenced by Deputy speaker of the Parliament Dimitur Peshev and the leaders in the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, including the Metropolitan.[18]

• Jews of Albania – 400 deported, 300 died, 1,800 survived, a number of whom were refugees.[19] 75 Albanians have been honored for rescuing Jews.[20]

• Jews of Denmark – 99% (7,800 survived, 60 lost)[21] 1,500 Jewish refugees who resided in Denmark at the beginning of the German occupation are included. Approximately 7,800 Jews resided in Demark before the planned October,1943 deportations. 6,300 were Danish citizens. King Christian X and the government of Denmark were in full support of protecting the Jewish community and opposed the planned deportation.[22] Danish clergymen and their congregations participated in rescue operations. Student doctors and hospitals openly aided Jews.  The Danish police refused to participate in the actions, and many were deported to Germany.[23] In a period of three weeks starting on October 1, 1943, 7,200 Jews and 700 of their non-Jewish relatives were taken by boat to safety in Sweden.  There may have been as many as 600-700 boat trips made to Sweden with Jewish refugees.  In the Spring of 1945, 500 Danish Jews were released from Theresienstadt by Swedish Red Cross Representative Folke Bernadotte [24] 22 Danes have been honored for rescuing Jews.[25]

• Jews of Finland – 99% (2,000 survived, 7 lost)[26] Approximately 200 German Jewish refugees resided in Finland at the time of the German occupation are included. Jewish population in 1939 was 2,000. Numerous Finns protested the proposed deportation of Finnish Jews.

• Jews of Italy – 85% (approximately 36,820 survived, 5,596 - 7,680 lost; Jews of Rome – 90%; 7,000 survived)[27]  Jewish population before the Italian Armistice of September 8, 1943 was 44,50, 12,000 were foreigners. 6,000 Jews emigrated during the war.  The Undersecretary of the Italian Foreign Ministry Giuseppe Bastiannini, 1944-1945, argued against the arrest and deportation of Italian Jews.[28]  In addition, thousands of Jews in the Italian occupied zones of Yugoslavia (Croatia), Greece, Southern France and Tunisia were saved from deportation by Italian diplomats and commanders in the Italian Army.[29]  682 Italians have been honored for Rescuing Jews.[30]  In addition, numerous Italian government officials, including diplomats, soldiers, and military police, aided Jews in three Italian zones of occupation.  These zones were located in Southern France, Athens, and Croatia.  These officials refused to deport Jews or aid in the arrest, roundup or deportation of Jews under their control.[31]

• Jews of France – 78% (approximately 272,680 survived, 77,320 lost)[32] Among the survivors are Jewish refugees from Germany, Austria, Belgium and other European Countries. Pre-deportation Jewish population was 350,000. 3,995 French people have been honored for rescuing Jews.[33]

• Jews of Germany – 76% (approximately 431,500 survived, 134,500-141,500 lost).[34]  Jewish population in 1933 was 566,000. Approximately 360,000 German Jews emigrated between 1933 and October, 1941 when legal emigration was stopped.  150,000 Jews emigrated from Germany after Kristallnacht in November 1938, 71,550 between September 1939 and 1941.  A total of 100,000 German Jews emigrated to counties in Europe that were later occupied by the Nazis.[35] A total of 87 countries took in German refugees.  The United States received 90,000.[36]  England took in 50,000.[37] 36,000 German Jews, 5,000 Austrian Jews, and 4,700 Czechoslovakian Jews emigrated to Palestine. 98,000 German Jews were deported to other European countries after 1941. 601 Germans have been honored for rescuing Jews.[38]

• Jews of Austria – 73% (135,000 survived, 48,000-50,000 lost)[39] Pre-Anschluss Jewish population was 185,000. 126,455 Jews were able to emigrate from Austria after the Anschluss in 1938 until October, 1941. They emigrated to 89 countries including 30,850 to England 28,000 to the United States, 11,589 to South and Central America, 28,700 to Asia (18,000 to china), and 9,190 to Palestine. In all 128,500 Austrian Jews successfully escaped from the country.[40] 109 Austrians have been honored for rescuing Jews.[41]

• Jews of Estonia – 67% (3,000 survived, 1,500-2,000 lost)[42]. Total Jewish population in Estonia in 1941 was 4,500. Approximately 2,000-2500 Jews escaped Estonia before the German invasion in June, 1941. 3 Estonians have been honored for rescuing Jews.[43]

• Jews of the Soviet Union (USSR) – 67% (2,020,000 survived, 1,000,000-1,100,000 lost).[44]  Total Jewish population in 1939 was 3,020,000. After the German invasion in June, 1941, nearly 2 million Jews fled to the USSR.  At that point, there were between 5,150,000 and 5,250,000 Jews under Soviet control. This represented more than half the total Jewish population in Europe. Between 250,000 and 300,00 Jews escaped to the Soviet Union.[45] Many of them were Polish Jews.  Some estimates calculate that almost 10% of the Polish Jews fled to the Soviet Union.  204 Russians have been honored for rescuing Jews.[46]

• Jews of Belgium – 56%-58% (36,800 survived, 28,900 lost)[47]. Pre-deportation Jewish population was 65,700. 92% of the Jews residing in Belgium at the beginning of the German occupation were non-citizens.  34,000 Jews were deported during the occupation.  Most Jews, approximately 25,000, survived the war in hiding. This was due to the help of numerous Belgians and church leaders.[48]  Queen Mother Elizabeth of Belgium, the mother of King Léopold III, protested the treatment of Jews and attempted to stop the arrest and deportation of Jews in Belgium.  In 1942, she was able to intercede with the German occupying forces to have Belgian children released.  In June 1943, she had 300 Jews released from imprisonment.  1,731 Belgians have been honored for rescuing Jews.[49]

• Jews of Norway – 55% (approximately 938 survived, 762 lost).[50] Pre-war Jewish population in Norway was 1,700 which included 220 refugees. Norwegians rescued 900 Jews from deportation by hiding them until they could be secretly transported to neutral Sweden.[51] 67 Norwegians are honored for rescuing Jews.[52]

• Jews of Romania – 53-56% (322,000-339,000 survived, 271,000-287,000 lost).  Prewar population of Romania was 609,000.[53] The Jewish Council and their leaders obtained the support of Romanian opposition parties. These included the National Peasants’ Party, the National Liberal Party, Queen Mother Helena, clergymen and diplomats. Together they stopped planned deportations.[54]  60 Romanians have been honored for rescuing Jews.[55]

• Jews of Luxembourg – 44% (approximately 1,550 survived, 1,950 lost).[56] Jewish population in 1940 was 3,500, 1,500 were refugees who entered the country after 1933.[57] 1 Luxembourger has been honored for rescuing Jews.[58]

• Jews of the Netherlands – 40% (40,000 survived, 100,000 lost). Jewish population in 1940 was 140,000.  75,000 Jews resided in Amsterdam.  There were 15,174 Jewish refugees in Holland at the beginning of the German occupation in 1940, many were from Germany, Austria, and the Protectorate of Bohemia Moravia.[59] 12,000 Dutch Jews were exempted from deportation because of their marriages, 2,000 left the country.  Altogether, approximately 17,000 Dutch Jews survived in hiding.[60]  Many were helped by sympathetic Belgians.[61] An estimated 3,000 Jews were protected from deportation by a sympathetic German official named Hans Georg Calmeyer.  5,450 Jews returned after the war. Excluding these survivors, the loss rate for the Netherlands is nearly 80%. 5,595 Dutch people have been honored for rescuing Jews.[62]

• Jews of Bohemia-Moravia – 34% (40,160 survived, 78,150 lost).[63] Jewish population in 1940 was 118,310. Approximately 26,000 Jews escaped before the deportations began.  116 Czech Republic citizens have been honored for rescuing Jews.[64]

• Jews of Hungary – 31-33% (256,000-275,000 survived, 550,000-569,000 lost; Jews of Budapest – 78%; 100,000 survived, 28,000 lost).[65] Jewish population of Hungary in 1940 was 825,000. Included are Jews of Northern Transylvania, Banat and the Trans Carpathian Ukraine. Approximately 255,000-265,000 Jewish survivors were in Hungary and its former provinces at the end of the war. 844 Hungarians have been honored for rescuing Jews.[66]

• Jews of Yugoslavia – 19-28% (14,700-21,800 survived, 56,200-63,300 lost; this includes the 11,000 Jews killed in Macedonia).[67] Pre-deportation Jewish population was 78,000-80,000. 4,000 were Jewish refugees from Austria, Germany, and other European Countries. Between 1933-1941, 50,000 Jews passed thru Yugoslavia fleeing the Nazis. The Jews in Yugoslavia provided aid to its refugee community. Jews resided in Serbia, Croatia, Backa and Macedonia (controlled by Bulgaria).

• Jews of Latvia – 22-23% (20,000-21,500 survived, 70,000-71,500 lost)[68]. Pre-deportation Jewish population was 91,500. 135 Latvians have been honored for rescuing Jews.[69]

• Jews of Slovakia – 20-24% (17,950-20,950 survived, 68,000-71,000 lost).  Pre-deportation Jewish population was 88,950.[70]  Jewish rescue, aid and relief organizations were established by the Jewish community.  The first was the Committee of Six, out of which was created the Pracovná Skupina (Working Group).  The leaders of these groups appealed to Slovak political leaders and prominent citizens, who were able to halt a planned deportation in October 1942.  10,000 Slovak Jews escaped to Hungary before the German occupation in March 1944.[71]  572 Slovakians have been honored for rescuing Jews.[72]

• Jews of Greece – 13-22% (10,380-17,380 survived, 60,000-67,000 lost). Pre-deportation Jewish population was 77,380.[73]  In Athens, thousands of Greek Jews were aided by diplomats from Turkey, Spain, and Italy.  Theophilos Damaskinos, Regent for the Greek government in exile and Archbishop of Athens and all Greece, Greek Orthodox Church, intervened directly to aid Jews.[74]  Princess Alice of Greece is also honored for aiding Jews.  In addition, the Athens Police, headed by chief Angelos Evert, issued forged documents to Jews.[75]  More than 600 Greek Orthodox clergymen were arrested for issuing baptismal certificates and hiding 250 Jewish children. The Greek underground transported and hid Jews. In Salonika, Italian diplomats helped hundreds of Jews by issuing them protective documents and helping them escape to the Italian zone around Athens.[76]  335 Greeks have been honored for rescuing Jews.[77]

• Jews of Lithuania – 15-17% (25,000-28,000 survived, 140,000-143,000 lost)[78]. Pre-deportation Jewish population was 168,000. 891 Lithuanians have been honored for rescuing Jews.[79]

• Jews of Poland – 9-12% (300,000-400,000 survived, 2,900,000-3,000,000 lost)[80]. Pre-deportation Jewish population was 3,300,000.  These figures include September 1, 1939, Polish borders and later areas taken by the Soviet Union.  6,706 Poles have been honored for rescuing Jews.[81]

Jews residing in neutral Europe:

• Jews of Great Britain – As of 1933, 350,000[82] Approximately 40,000 Jews emigrated to England before outbreak of war, 8,000 were children.  An additional 6,000 Jews immigrated from Czechoslovakia.[83]  22 citizens of the United Kingdom have been honored for rescuing Jews.[84]

•  Jews of Portugal -  As of 1933, 1,000.[85]  Tens of thousands of Jewish refugees escape to Lisbon.  The largest cohort came after the German invasion of France, Holland and Belgium.  There, they attempted to arrange transportation out of the country.  Portuguese Consul General in Bordeaux, France, Aristides de Sousa Mendes, issued 10,000 transit visas to Jewish refugees.  Most of them made their way to Lisbon.  For this unauthorized action, Mendes was dismissed from the Portuguese diplomatic service.[86]  3 Portuguese have been honored for rescuing Jews.[87]

• Jews of Spain – As of 1933, 4,000.[88]  By 1936 there was an estimated 6,000 Jews in Spain. After the surrender of France in the Summer of 1940 tens of thousands of refugees entered Spain. With tacit permission of Spanish authorities, 20,000-30,000 Jews escaped to Spain in the early years of the War.   During the war, many thousands of Jewish refugees passed thru Spain on their way to Portugal.[89]  Spanish controlled territories in North Africa had large populations of Jews; Morocco (1941), 14,734 Jews, Tangiers (1940), 8,000 Jews.[90]  4,000 Jews in Europe lived under the protection of the Spanish government.  3,000 Spanish Jews resided in France, 640 in Greece, 107 in Romania, 50 in Hungary, 25 in Yugoslavia and others in Belgium, Bulgaria and Morocco. They were aided by sympathetic consuls.[91]  9 Spaniards have been honored for rescuing Jews.[92]

• Jews of Sweden – 100%; number of Jewish refugees in Sweden in Spring 1944: estimated 12,000.  These included 7,200 Danish Jews who were given safe haven after the planned German deportation from Denmark in October 1943, and 900 Jews from Norway who were also given safe haven after escaping from Norway.[93]  In addition, Sweden accepted approximately 7,000 Jewish women who were liberated from the Ravensbrück German concentration camp by Red Cross representative Folke Bernadotte in the spring of 1945.[94]  More than 180,000 refugees in total were protected in Sweden during the war.[95]  No Jews were deported from Sweden.[96] Per Albin Hansson, Prime Minister of Sweden, and Christian Guenther, Foreign Minister, actively supported Sweden’s rescue efforts, allowing Sweden to become a refuge for Jews and other victims of the Nazis.[97]  The prewar population of Jews in Sweden was between 6,000 and 6,700.[98] 10 Swedes have been honored for rescuing Jews.[99]

• Jews of Switzerland – 100%; pre-war number of Jews in Switzerland: 18,000-25,000.  No Jews were deported from Switzerland; many, however, were refused entry and were turned back at the border.  By February 1945, there were 115,000 refugees in Switzerland; approximately half were soldiers.  Between 1933 and 1945, 300,000 refugees passed through Switzerland; 30,000 were Jews.[100]  In 1944, 1,684 Hungarian Jews were sent from Bergen-Belsen to Switzerland, 1,200 Jews were sent from Theresienstadt.[101]  49 Swiss have been honored for recuing Jews.[102]

• Jews of Turkey – 56,000.[103] Several thousand Jewish refugees were permitted entry to Turkey during the war, many from Germany.  In April 1943, the Turks granted transit visas to 1,350 Jews from Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania, and 300 to Greek Jews to travel through Turkey on the way to Palestine. An additional 2,100 Jews in Turkey also traveled to Palestine.[104] The Turkish government allowed several Jewish rescue and relief agencies to operate in the country. This included the Jewish Agency for Palestine (Yishuv). It organized clandestine immigration to Palestine. The Rescue Committee of the Jewish Agency in Turkey, of the Joint Rescue Committee, brought in 5,080 Jews from German occupied territories.[105]  Agents of the American War Refugee Board (RWB) also operated in Turkey. 1 Turkish citizen has been honored for rescuing Jews.[106]

Mass Rescue and Survival in Europe

This is a sampling of some of the prominent mass rescue and relief efforts carried out on behalf of Jews in Europe and throughout the World.

Number of Polish Jews who escaped to the USSR: 250,000-300,00.[107]

Number of Jews who were given safe refuge in Shanghai: 18,000-20,000.[108] More than 17,000 emigrated from Germany and Austria.[109]

Number of Polish Jews who escaped to Shanghai, China, through Japan: 3,489.  2,178 were Polish Jews, 500 were students and rabbis, many from the Mir Yeshiva.  They had received visas from the Japanese consul in Kovno, Chiune Sugihara and honorary Dutch consul Jan Zwartendijk.[110]

Heads of State and royalty who saved or aided Jews: 8 - King Christian X of Denmark[111]; King Boris III of Bulgaria[112]; Carl Gustav V, King of Sweden[113]; Edvard Benes, President of the Czechoslovakian Government in Exile[114]; Castenedu Castro, President of El Salvador; Jean-Marie Musy, President of the Federal Council of Switzerland; George Damaskinos, Regent for Greek Government in Exile and Head of the Greek Orthodox Church[115]; Manuel L. Quezon, President of the Philippines; Princess Alice of Greece[116]; Queen Mother Elizabeth of Belgium[117]; and Queen Mother Elena of Romania[118].

Prime Ministers who saved Jews: Per Albin Hansson, Prime Minister of Sweden, allowed tens of thousands of refugees to immigrate to Sweden[119]; Prime Minister Miklós Kállay of Hungary[120]; Prime Minister Calinescu of Romania allowed Jews to pass through Romania before the war broke out.

Foreign Ministers who saved Jews: Giuseppe Bastiannini, Italy, Governor of Dalmatia, 1941-43, and Undersecretary, Italian Foreign Ministry, 1944-45.  On at least two occasions, Bastiannini talked Italian dictator Mussolini out of deporting and handing over Jews to the Nazis[121].  Christian Guenther, Swedish Foreign Minister, negotiated the release of Danish and Norwegian prisoners of war held in German camps[122].  He later authorized the rescue of Scandinavian Jewish prisoners of war from German concentration camps.  Rolf Whitting, Foreign Minister of Finland, refused to cooperate in the deportation of Finnish Jews and Jewish refugees in Finland.  More than 2,000 Jews living in Finland were saved.

Number of Jews who were aided by diplomats throughout Europe: 250,000+.  There were at least 347 diplomats who aided Jews.  They represented 41 countries, including the Holy See (Vatican) and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).  They issued passports, as well as transit, exit and entry visas.  The protested actions against Jews and, in a number of cases, directly protected Jews from persecution and deportation.  They operated in 24 countries.  37 diplomats, including Red Cross representatives, have been honored as Righteous among the Nations by the State of Israel.[123]

Number of Jews who survived in Budapest, Hungary: Estimated 100,000.[124] This was accomplished by 39 diplomats from Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany the Red Cross and the Vatican. This highly organized rescue took place between March 1944 thru January 1945.[125] They were aided by Jewish underground rescue networks and Zionist youth organizations.[126]  The diplomatic rescue in Budapest was initiated by Swiss Consul Carl Lutz.  He began issuing protective papers to thousands of Jews.  He established his headquarters at the Glass House in Budapest, from which he organized his rescue operation.  Lutz was directly responsible for saving as many as 62,000 Jews.  He mentored Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg when he arrived in Budapest in July 1944.  Together, they conducted one of the most successful rescues in the entire Holocaust.  (Wallenberg was arrested by the Soviets and his fate is unknown.)[127]

Number of Jews aided by the Jewish Relief and Rescue Committee of Budapest: 15,000, including 8,000 from Slovakia, 4,000 from Germany, and 2,200 from Poland.  It worked closely with the Working Group and its Tiyyul program, the Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC), and the War Refugee Board (WRB).  Collectively, they cared for numerous Slovak refugees in Hungary.  In the spring of 1944, the Jewish Rescue and Relief Committee of Budapest arranged for the release of approximately 21,000 Jews from an area of Trianon, Hungary.  They were sent to Austria, where most survived the war.  During the Arrow Cross period in Budapest, thousands of Budapest Jews were saved through securing them in protected houses.[128]

Number of Jewish children rescued by the Protestant Good Shepherd Committee in Budapest, Hungary: hundreds.  It was led by Gábor Sztehlo in cooperation with the International Committee of the Red Cross in Budapest, 1944-1945.  Sztehlo has been recognized as Righteous among the Nations by the State of Israel.[129]

Number of Jews aided by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC), 1933-1945: tens of thousands.[130]  It was the largest rescue and relief effort on behalf of Jews in the world.  It expended more than $70 million in its effort.

Number of Jews aided or saved by the War Refugee Board (WRB) or its agents: estimated 200,000.  It operated in Turkey, Italy (where 980 Jews were saved), Bucharest (48,000 Jews), Transnistria, Slovakia and Budapest (estimated 100,000 Jews saved).[131]  Approximately 15,000 Jews and 20,000 non-Jews were evacuated from Axis-controlled areas.  One thousand Jews were escorted from a liberated area in Italy to Oswego, New York in a rescue sponsored by the War Refugee Board.[132]

Number of Jews who were protected from deportation from Bulgaria: 50,000.[133] This was due in part because of the actions of sympathetic members Parliament including Deputy Speaker Dimitur Peshev and members of the Holy Synod of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church.[134]  In addition, King Boris of Bulgaria cancelled the plan by the Germans to deport Jews from Bulgaria.  This was due to pressure from prominent Bulgarian citizens.

Number of Jews in Romania aided by Rabbi Alexander Safran, Wilhelm Filderman, and the Jewish Council in Romania: thousands. They were helped by Romanian leaders and officials, including church leaders, and members of the diplomatic corps. Together they were able to prevent pending deportations.[135]

Number of Jews in Slovakia who were saved from deportation by the Jewish Committee of Six, Later the Working Group (Procovná Skupina): thousands.  Its leaders were Gisi Fleischman, Rabbi Dov Weissmandel and Samuel David.  They petitioned prominent Slovak government and political leaders, clergymen, and diplomats to protest the treatment of Slovak Jews. They in part helped to stop the planned deportations in October 1942.  Out of the Working Group came the Relief and Rescue Committee of Budapest.  They also planned escape routes from Slovakia to Hungary before the German occupation there in March, 1944. The operation was called Tiyyul (“Excursion”).  Between 6,000-8,000 Slovak Jews and 1,200 Polish Jews escaped to Hungary on the Tiyyul.  They also publicized the Auschwitz Protocols a report on the mass murder of Jews there.  The Working Group’s leaders, Gisi Fleischmann and Rabbi Weissmandel, were deported to Auschwitz.  Fleischmann was murdered there and Weissmandel escaped en route.[136]  Out of this operation grew the Europa Plan for the rescue of other Jewish communities in Europe.

Number of Jews protected by Italian Diplomats, soldiers and policeman in Italian Zones of occupation in Southern France, Athens, Greece and Croatia: estimated 40,000-50,000. Five thousand Jews from Croatia found heaven in Southern France. 25,000-50,000 Jews were protected in Southern France. 13,000 Jews were protected in Athens and Greek Islands. As many as 40,000 of these were not Italian citizens.[137]

Number of Jews aided by the Nimes Committee in Southern France: thousands[138]

Number of Jewish refugees given safe-haven in Great Britain: 50,000[139]

Number of Jews aided by Vatican Nuncio in Ankara, Turkey Monsignor Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli, in cooperation with American Ambassador in Turkey Laurence Steinhardt; unknown.[140]

Number of Jews given refuge and extended safe-haven in Sweden: 12,000.[141] 7,800 were Danish Jews rescued from the planned deportation in October, 1943. 900 Norwegian Jews were given refuge in Sweden.  The Swedish Government approved of and cooperated in the rescue of Jews and other victims on the Nazis. It sanctioned the rescue work of Swedish Red Cross Representative Folke Bernadotte in the spring of 1945.

Number of refugees saved in the Folke Bernadotte (Swedish Red Cross) mission to the Ravensbrück concentration camp in Germany in the spring of 1945: 19,839.  Approximately 7,000 were Jewish women.[142]

Number of Jews aided by Portuguese Consul General Aristides de Sousa- Mendes in Bordeaux and Bayonne, France in 1940: possible 10,000 plus thousands of others. He issued them transit visas to Portugal.[143]

Number of Jews in Demark that were protected from deportation in October, 1943, then were safely transported to Sweden; 7,900.[144]

Number of Jews aided by Greek officials and citizens in Athens: thousands. Theophilos Damaskinos, Regent for the Greek government in exile and the Archbishop of Athens, intervened directly to aid Jews.  He asked local clergymen to aid Jews in avoiding deportation.  Greek police issued forged papers, Greek clergy distributed baptismal certificates and hid 250 Jewish children. The Greek underground transported and hid numerous Jews. Greek political leaders, civic leaders, lawyers, clergy, and others strongly protested deportations.[145] 

Number of Dutch Jews who were granted exemption to Nazi Racial laws: at least 3,000.  This protected them from arrest and deportation. The sympathetic German official in charge of this department was Dr. Hans Georg Calmeyer. He granted exceptions to at least 60 percent of applicants. He was declared a Righteous person by the state of Israel in 1992.[146]

Number of Polish Jews who were aided by Zegota, Rada Pomocy Zydom (Council for the Aid of Jews) which operated in Poland from December, 1942 until January, 1945: at least 4,000.[147]  Zegota had both Jews and non-Jews as active members and leaders.  Zegota was officially honored by Yad Vashem as a rescuer organization.

Number of Jews who were given El Salvadoran protective papers by George Mandel Mantello which aided them avoid deportation: thousands.[148]

Number of Jews protected from arrest and deportation by French citizens in the French village of Le Chambon-Sur-Lignon in the Haute-Loire Department in Southern France: 3,000-5,000.[149]  This mass rescue effort was headed by Pastor Andre Trocmé and his wife Magda, and the Mayor of Le Chambon, Pastor Charles Guillon.

Number of Jews hidden and protected in Belgium during the German occupation: approximately 25,000. Many Belgians were actively involved in the resistance movement, including prominent church leaders. 4,000 Jewish children were hidden by the Oeuvre National l’Enfance (National Children’s Committee) led by Yvonne Nevejean.[150]  Belgian abbot Joseph André organized a rescue effort that rescued hundreds of Jewish children in Namur, Belgium.  Working with the underground Jewish Comité de Défense des Juifs, he hid and provided resources for the children for the duration of the German occupation.[151]

Number of Jews hidden and protected from arrest and deportation in the Netherlands: 17,000. Approximately 4,500 children were hidden. They were aided by numerous Dutch citizens.[152]  Johannes Post and Arnold Douwes operated a clandestine rescue network near the town of Nieuwlande, in the Dutch province of Drenthe.  In the area, many homes sheltered and hid Jews.  They supported the rescue operation, which saved hundreds of Dutch Jews, including 100 children.  Douwes and a hundred citizens of Nieuwlande were recognized by Israel as Righteous among the Nations.[153]  300 Jews were hidden on the farm of Johannes Bogaard in Nieuw Vennep (Haarlemmermeer, South of Amsterdam).[154]

Number of Jewish children aided by Catholic institutions and clergy in Belgium during the German occupation: 2,500.[155]

Number of Jews aided by Father Marie Benoit and the Capuchin Monastery rescue network in Marseilles, France: perhaps thousands. Working with Jewish and non-Jewish resistance organizations they issued and distributed thousands of baptismal certificates.[156]

Number of Jews rescued by Témoignage Chrétien: ___[157]

Number of Jews rescued by Amitié Chrétienne (Christian Friendship): hundreds.  It was led by French priest Father Alexandre Glasberg.  It aided numerous Jews who were released from French detention camps.  After 1942, they operated an underground rescue network.  The rescue operation was approved by the head of the Catholic Church in France, Cardinal Pierre Marie Gerlier.[158]

Number of Jews rescued by German businessman Hermann Friedrich Gräbe: numerous.  Gräbe was a manager of a number of businesses in German-occupied territories.  As a large-scale contractor, he employed a number of Jewish laborers.  He risked his life to rescue his Jewish laborers from deportation and almost certain death.  He took on massive projects to employ as many Jews as possible in order to maximize the number of Jewish lives he could save.  On one occasion, he was able to gain the release of 150 Jews.  Gräbe has been honored as Righteous among the Nations by the State of Israel.[159]

Number of Jews aided by police commandant and border control officer Paul Grüniger: 3,600.  Grüniger allowed German Jewish refugees to enter the Swiss border control point he supervised.  He had been previously ordered to refuse entry to Jews after August 1938.  He backdated documents in order to allow Jews entry.  For this, he was removed from his position.  Grüniger is recognized as Righteous among the Nations.

Number of Polish Jews given transit visas By Japanese consul Chiune Sugihara in Kovno, Lithuania in 1940: 2,100-3,000.[160]

Number of refugees aided by the Emergency Rescue Committee (ERC) lead by Varian Frye, Marseille, France: estimated 2,300.[161]

Number of Jews aided by Mexican Consul General Gilberto Bosques and his staff in Marseille, France: estimated 1,400.[162] The legation also aided thousands of other refugees including former Spanish Republic Soldiers and anti-Nazi activists. They arranged for transportation to Mexico for thousands.

Number of Jews saved by the former President of the Swiss Council, Jean Marie Musy: 1,200.[163] Negotiating with an SS officer, Mussy was able to obtain the release of Jews in the Theresienstadt camp in Prague, Czechoslovakia.

Number of German Jews aided by British diplomat and intelligence officer Francis Foley: 10,000. Foley, as passport control officer in the British Embassy in Berlin, liberally issued visas to German Jews seeking to emigrate to British Mandatory Palestine. He often acted contrary to British regulations and policy.[164]

Number of Jews rescued by German businessman Oscar Schindler in Poland and Germany: 1,100.[165]

Number of Jews aided or rescued in the Vilna Ghetto in Lithuania by Anton Schmid a sergeant in the German Army (Wehrmacht): unknown.  Schmid protected and hid Jews from various deportations and actions.  He also transported Jews to Warsaw and Bialystok, where they were able to give eyewitness accounts of the massacre of Jews.  Schmid was arrested and executed by a military court.  He has been recognized as Righteous among the Nations by the State of Israel.[166]

Number of Jews in Norway who escaped to Sweden during the German occupation: 900. They were aided by the Norwegian underground during the German occupation.[167]

Number of Jews rescued by Joop Westerweel and his escape network: 150-200. Westerweel organized escape networks and routes for Jewish youth pioneers out of German occupied Holland and France to neutral Spain and Switzerland. Westerweel was arrested and later executed on August 11, 1944. His partner in the rescue operation was Jewish pioneer leader Joachim (“Schuschu”) Simon. Simon was arrested and committed suicide rather than betray his comrades.[168]

Number of Jewish children rescued by the Warsaw branch of the Order of Franciscan Sisters of Mary: several hundred.  Starting in 1942, the Order took in hundreds of Jewish children who had escaped the Warsaw Ghetto.  They were distributed among numerous Catholic institutions.  The leader of the rescue network was Mother Superior Matylda Getter, who has been recognized as Righteous among the Nations.[169]

Number of Jews rescued in the “Teheran Children’s Transport” in February 1943: 1,230.  These include 861 children and 369 adults.  They were refugees originally from Poland.  They were escorted to Palestine by Yishuv representatives.[170]

Persons Honored as Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem

Following are names and numbers of persons honored as Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem, by country and ethnic origin, as of January 1, 2017.

Poland:  6,706

Netherlands:  5,595

France:  3,995

Ukraine:  2,573

Belgium:  1,731

Lithuania:  891

Hungary:  844

Italy:  682

Belarus:  641

Germany:  601

Slovakia:  572

Greece:  335

Russia:  204

Latvia:  136

Serbia:  135

Czech Republic:  116

Croatia:  115

Austria:  109

Moldova:  79

Albania:  75

Norway:  67

Romania:  60

Switzerland:  49

Bosnia:  43

Armenia:  24

Denmark*:  22

United Kingdom:  22

Bulgaria:  20

Macedonia:  10

Slovenia:  10

Sweden:  10

Spain:  9

USA:  5

Estonia:  3

Portugal:  3

Brazil:  2

Chile:  2

China:  2

Indonesia:  2

Peru:  2

Cuba:  1

Ecuador:  1

Egypt:  1

El Salvador:  1

Georgia:  1

Ireland:  1

Japan:  1

Luxembourg:  1

Montenegro:  1

Turkey:  1

Vietnam:  1

Total: 26,513

* The title of Righteous is awarded to individuals, not to groups. The members of the Danish resistance viewed the rescue operation as a collective act and therefore asked Yad Vashem not to recognize resistance members individually. Yad Vashem respected their request and consequently the number of Danish Righteous is relatively small. A tree was planted on the Mount of Remembrance to commemorate the Danish resistance.  [Downloaded from Yad Vashem website on July 4, 2017.]

Note: It has not been possible to verify this statement.  A former employee of Yad Vashem could not find evidence of this documentation. 

Officially Recognizing Rescuers of the Holocaust

The total number of individuals honored and recognized by Yad Vashem: The World Holocaust Remembrance Center (26,513 as of 10/8/2017) does not reflect the actual number of people who rescued or aided Jews in Europe.  Yad Vashem’s list, in fact, represents only a fraction of the individuals who actually saved Jews in Europe. 

Probably the most important reason that Yad Vashem does not recognize many thousands of additional rescuers is that it does not conduct original research to identify individuals who aided or rescued Jews in the Holocaust.  They only recognize people who are nominated.  Most nominations come from individuals who were rescued or their descendants.  In the case of mass rescue, a number of individuals who were saved were not aware specifically of who was responsible for their survival.  As a result, they could not possibly submit a nomination or recommendation for memorialization.

Yad Vashem has very narrow criteria for who is honored and recognized.  The criteria for recognition were decided in legislation created by the Israeli parliament (Knesset).  In addition, Yad Vashem has developed a clarification of its criteria since then.  Among the criteria for recognition is “acknowledged mortal risk for the rescuer during the endeavor – during the Nazi regime, the warnings clearly stated that whoever extended a hand to assist the Jews placed not only their own life at risk but also the lives of their loved ones.”[1]

Furthermore, the decisions rendered by the administrators and the Committee of the Righteous on who is to be honored are very often subjective.  An individual who is honored must have been at “acknowledged mortal risk” as a consequence of their efforts to save Jews.[2]  Assessing mortal risk can be highly subjective.  There are, in fact, numerous individuals who have been nominated and for various reasons have not been approved for recognition or memorialization.  For example, Mexican Consul General Gilberto Bosques, stationed in Marseilles, France, and his staff aided an estimated 1,400 Jews by protecting them during roundups.  Bosques housed, fed, and protected these Jews for many months.  They were kept on consular grounds, where they were protected by his diplomatic status.  Bosques also helped many thousands of Spanish Republican soldiers who fled to Southern France.  In addition, Bosques was responsible for having Mexico break diplomatic relations both with France and with Germany.  Mexico then sided with the Allies against Germany.  For these actions, Bosques was arrested along with members of his staff.  Yad Vashem refused to recognize Bosques or his staff because their imprisonment was not under particularly harsh conditions.[3]

These are some additional examples. 

There were more than 50 Italian diplomats who rescued or aided Jews in their zones of occupation, which included Southern France, Athens, and Croatia.[4]  Tens of thousands of Jews were aided by these diplomats, who refused to cooperate with the Nazis in the arrest or deportation of Jews.  These diplomats were nominated in extensive documents provided to Yad Vashem by the Visas for Life: The Righteous and Honorable Diplomats project.  These documents were based on original sources from the Italian Foreign Ministry and on testimony of Jewish community leaders.  Not one of these Italian diplomats has been honored or recognized by Yad Vashem for their courageous actions and initiatives in saving Jews.  There are numerous other examples of rescuers who have not been recognized.

Yad Vashem officially only recognizes 22 Danes for aiding Jews during the planned deportation in October 1943.  Yet there were literally hundreds of additional Danes who participated in the mass rescue of the nearly 8,000 Jews in Denmark.[5]

The Emergency Rescue Committee (ERC) was an American rescue organization that participated in aiding more than 2,000 Jews and others in Marseilles, France, in 1940-1941.  They were more than 50 individuals who were part of this rescue network.[6]  Yet, only Varian Fry, the first leader of the organization, has been honored from this organization.  Attempts to have other individuals recognized have been to no avail.  Yad Vashem, in an official statement, said that they only recognized leaders of organizations.

As a rule, the numerous Holocaust museums worldwide, including the US Holocaust Memorial Museum, in Washington, DC, do not display or have materials on rescuers other than those officially recognized by Yad Vashem.[7]

Yad Vashem, with a few exceptions, does not recognize organizations for rescuing or aiding Jews.  There are a few exceptions, such as Zegota (Polish Council to Aid Jews).

Thousands of Jews rescued their fellow Jews throughout Nazi-occupied Europe, neutral countries, and throughout the world.  Jews were at a much higher risk than others for being killed for saving Jews.  No public institution, including Yad Vashem, honors these courageous individuals.

Yad Vashem is the only organization in the world that documents and honors individuals for saving Jews during the Holocaust.  No other institution carries on this work. 

Yad Vashem is to be commended for taking the initiative to honor individuals who saved Jews during the Holocaust.  At the time, this was a unique historical program.  Very few countries or institutions have taken on the responsibility of honoring outsiders for their altruism and for risking their lives.

Nonetheless, the small number of individuals recognized by Yad Vashem for saving Jews in the Holocaust skews the research to make it appear as though very few individuals or organizations were active in rescuing Jews.  This gives the wrong impression that might be interpreted to mean that there were very few people willing to put themselves out to aid Jews.  This problem is compounded by the fact that all of the Holocaust research institutions and museums worldwide defer to Yad Vashem and their research on this matter.  This is a disservice to the thousands of courageous individuals who aided the Jewish people in the time of their greatest need.

[1] Yad Vashem website, downloaded 10/8/2017

[2] Yad Vashem website, downloaded 10/8/2017

[3] Barros Horcasitas, 2001, DeSierra, 1998

[4] Alfieri, 1948; Carpi, 1970; Carpi, 1972; Carpi, 1981; Carpi, 1994; Carpi in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Aid to Jews by Italians”, 729-730; Caracciolo, 1986; Herzer, 1989; Michaelis, 1978 Poliakov and Sabille, 1955; Verax [Roberto Ducci], 1944; Zuccotti,1987

[5] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799-1800; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 145, states 116 lost; Flender, 1980; Goldberger, 1987; Valentin, 1953; Werner, 2002; Yahil, 1969

[6] Fry, 1945; Ryan, 1996

[7] Conversation with Director of the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, Sarah Bloomfield.  Bloomfield stated that the Museum decided during its early planning that it would not recognize anyone other than those honored by Yad Vashem.  The exhibit on rescue in the museum has the names of approximately 9,000 rescuers.  This list is based on Yad Vashem’s list.  There are no names on this list that are not recognized by Yad Vashem.

Selected Bibliography

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Agar, Herbert.  The Saving Remnant : An Account of Jewish Survival.  (New York : Viking Press, 1960).

Alfieri, Dino. Deux dictateurs face à face: Rome-Berlin, 1939-1943. (Paris, 1948).

American Jewish Committee. American Jewish Yearbook. Vols. XXXII-XLVIII. (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1931-1947).

American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, Aiding Jews Overseas: Reports of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1939-1942.

American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, The Rescue of Stricken Jews in a World at War, December 1943.

Ancel, J. “Plans for Deportation of Romanian Jews and Their Discontinuation in Light of Documentary Evidence, July-October 1942.” Yad Vashem Studies, 16 (1984): 381-420.

Anger, Per. With Raoul Wallenberg in Budapest: Memories of the War Years in Hungary. (Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 1996).

Arad, Yitzhak, Gutman, Yisrael, Margaliot, Abraham. Documents on the Holocaust: Selected Sources on the Destruction of the Jews of Germany and Austria, Poland, and the Soviet Union. (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1999).

Avni, Haim. Spain, the Jews and Franco. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1982).

Avni, Haim. “Spanish Nationals in Greece and their Fate during the Holocaust.” Yad Vashem Studies, 8 (1970), pp. 31-68.

Avriel, Ehud. Open the Gates! The Dramatic Personal Story of “Illegal” Immigration to Israel. (New York: Atheneum, 1975).

Barros Horcasitas, Beatriz. “Gilberto Bosques Saldívar, adalid del asilo diplomático.” Sólo Historia, 12 (2001), pp. 74-87. 

Bar-Zohar, Michael. Beyond Hitler’s Grasp: The Heroic Rescue of Bulgaria’s Jews. (Holbrook, MA: Adams Media Corp., 1998).

Bartoszewski, W., and Z. Lewin. The Righteous Among the Nations. (London: Earls Court, 1969).

Bauer, Yehuda. American Jewry and the Holocaust: The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1939-45. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1981.

Bauer, Yehuda. My Brother’s Keeper: A History of the American Joint Distribution Committee, 1929-1939. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1974).

Bauer, Yehuda, and Robert Rozett, “Appendix 6: Estimated Jewish Losses in the Holocaust,” vol. 4. In Gutman, Yisrael (Ed.). Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, 4 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 1797-1802.

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Bertelsen, Aage. October ’43. (New York: Putnam, 1954).

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Boom Ten, Corrie.  The Hiding Place. (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1971).

Braham, Randolph L. The Politics of Genocide: The Holocaust in Hungary. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981).

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Breitman, Richard, Barbara McDonald Stewart, and Severin Hochberg (Eds.). Refugees and Rescue: The Diaries and Papers of James G. McDonald, 1935-1945. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2009).

Caracciolo, Nicola, translated and edited by Florette Rechnitz Koffler & Richard Koffler. Uncertain Refuge: Italy and the Jews during the Holocaust. (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1986).

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Carlgren, W. M. Swedish Foreign Policy during the Second World War. (London, 1977).

Carpi, Daniel. Aid to Jews by Italians.  In Gutman, Yisrael (Ed.). Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, 4 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 729-730.

Carpi, Daniel. Between Mussolini and Hitler: The Jews and the Italian Authorities in France and Tunisia. (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press, 1994).

Carpi, Daniel. "Notes on the History of the Jews in Greece during the Holocaust Period: The Attitude of the Italians (1941-1943)." In Festschrift in Honor of Dr. George S. Wise, H. Ben-Shahar et al., Eds., pp. 25-62. (Tel Aviv, 1981).

Carpi, Daniel. "The Rescue of Jews in the Italian Zone of Occupied Croatia." In Rescue Attempts During the Holocaust. Proceedings of the Second Yad Vashem International Historical Conference, edited by Y. Gutman & E. Zuroff, pp. 465-526. (Jerusalem, 1977).

Cesarani, David, ed. Genocide and Rescue: The Holocaust in Hungary 1944. (Oxford: Berg, 1997).

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Deaglio, Enrico, translated by Gregory Conti. The Banality of Goodness: The Story of Giorgio Perlasca. (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1998).

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Della Rocca, Roberto Morozzo. “Roncalli Diplomatico in Turchia e Grecia, 1935-1944” in Cristianesimo nella Storia, VIII/2. (1987), pp. 33-72, particularly pp. 55-56, 58.

Dose, Johannes. Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz in Dänemark: 1943-1945, 2nd ed. (Bonn: Auswärtiges Amt, 1992), Referat 012, p. 16.

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Eck, Nathan. “The Rescue of Jews With the Aid of Passports and Citizenship Papers of Latin American States.” Yad Vashem Studies on the European Jewish Catastrophe and Resistance, 1 (1957), pp. 125-152.

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Encyclopedia Judaica (2nd ed.).  (McMillan, 2006).

Favez, Jean-Claude.  Edited and translated by John and Beryl Fletcher. The Red Cross and the Holocaust. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).

Fein, Helen. Accounting for Genocide. (New York: Free Press, 1979).

Feingold, Henry. The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1944. (New Brunswick, NJ:(New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970).

Flender, Harold. Rescue in Denmark. (New York: Holocaust Library, 1980).

Folleman, Eva. Conscience and Courage. (New York: Doubleday, 1994).

Fraenkel, Josef (Ed.). The Jews of Austria: Essays on their Life, History and Destruction. (London: Vallentine, Mitchell, 1967).

Fralon, José-Alain, translated by Peter Graham. A Good Man in Evil Times: Aristides de Sousa Mendes – The Unknown Hero Who Saved Countless Lives in World War II. (New York: Viking, 2000).

Friedlander, Saul. Nazi Germany and the Jews: The Years of Persecution, 1933-1939. (New York: HarperCollins, 1997).

Friedlander, Saul. The Yers of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945.  (New York: HarperCollins, 2007).

Friedman, Philip. Their Brothers’ Keeper. (New York: Holocaust Library, 1978).

Friling, Tuvia, translated by Ora Cummings. Arrows in the Dark: David Ben-Gurion, the Yishuv Leadership, and Rescue Attempts during the Holocaust (Vol. 1). (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2005).

Fuchs, A. The Unheeded Cry. (New York, 1954).

Fry, Varian. Surrender on Demand. (New York: Random House, 1945).

Gilbert, Martin. Atlas of the Holocaust. (New York: William Morrow & Co., 1988, 1993).

Gilbert, Martin. The Righteous: The Unsung Heroes of the Holocaust. (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 2003).

Gilbert, Martin. The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust. (London: Routledge, 2009).

Gutman, Yisrael (Ed.). Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, 4 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1990).

Gutman, Israel (Editor in Chief), Sara Bender (Associate Editor). The Encyclopedia of the Righteous Among the Nations: Rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust. 9 volumes. (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2003-2007).

Gutman, Yisrael, and S. Krakowski. Unequal Victims: Poles and Jews during World War Two. (New York, 1987).

Gutman, Y., and E. Zuroff (Eds.). Rescue Attempts during the Holocaust: Proceedings of the Second Yad Vashem International Historical Conference, Jerusalem, 3-11 April, 1974. (Jerusalem, 1977).

Hallie, Philip. Lest Innocent Blood Be Shed: The Story of the Village of Le Chambon and How Goodness Happened There. (New York: Harper & Row, 1979).

Halter, Marek. Stories of Deliverance: Speaking with Men and Women who Rescued Jews from the Holocaust.  (Chicago: Open Court, 1998).

Harris, Mark Jonathan, and Deborah Oppenheimer.  Into the Arms of Strangers: Stories of the Kindertransport.  (New York: MJF Books, 2000).

Häsler, Alfred A., translated by Charles Lam Markmann. The Lifeboat is Full. (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1969).

Hellman, Peter. When Courage was Stronger than Fear. (New York: Marlow, 1999).

Herzer, Ivo. The Italian Refuge: Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust. (Washington: Catholic University Press, 1989).

Hilberg, Raul. The Destruction of the European Jews: Revised and Definitive Edition. (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1985).

Hirschmann, Ira A. Caution to the Winds.  (New York: David McKay Co., 1962).

Hirschmann, Ira A. Life Line to a Promised Land. (New York: Vanguard Press, 1946).

Ho, Feng Shan. Forty Years of My Diplomatic Life. (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1991).

Keneally, Thomas. Schindler’s List. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994).  (First published as Schindler’s Ark, 1982).

Klüger, Ruth, and Peggy Mann.  The Last Escape: The Launching of the Largest Secret Rescue Movement of All Time.  (Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Co., 1973).

Koblik, Steven. The Stones Cry Out: Sweden’s Response to the Persecution of the Jews, 1933-1945. (New York: Holocaust Library, 1988).

Kranzler, David. Japanese, Nazis and Jews: The Jewish Refugee Community of Shanghai, 1938-1945. (New York: Yeshiva University Press, 1976).

Kranzler, David. The Man Who Stopped the Trains to Auschwitz George Mantello, El Salvador, and Switzerland’s Finest Hour. (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2000).

Laqueur, Walter (Ed.) and Judith Tydor Baumel (Assoc. Ed.).  The Holocaust Encyclopedia. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001).

Lambert, Gilles, translated by Robert Bullen and Rosette Letellier. Operation Hazalah. (New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1974).

Land-Weber, Ellen. To Save a Life. (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois, 2000).

Langlet, Valdemar. Verk och dagar i Budapest (Work and Days in Budapest). (Stockholm: Wahlstrom & Widstrand, 1946).

Lapide, Pinchas E. Three Popes and the Jews. (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1967).

Lavi, T. Rumanian Jewry in World War II: Fight for Survival. (Jerusalem, 1965). Hebrew.

Leboucher, Fernande. Translated by J. F. Bernard. Incredible Mission. (Garden city, NY: Doubleday, 1969).

Leshem, P. “Rescue Efforts in the Iberian Peninsula.” Leo Baeck Institute Year Book, 14. (1969), pp. 231-256.

Lesser, Jeffrey. Welcoming the Undesirables: Brazil and the Jewish Question. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995).

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Lévai, Jenö. Raoul Wallenberg: His Remarkable Life, Heroic Battles and the Secret of His Mysterious Disappearance. (Melbourne: White Ant Occasional Publishing, 1988).

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Levine, Paul A. From Indifference to Activism: Swedish Diplomacy and the Holocaust: 1938-1944. (Uppsala, Sweden: 1998).

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Paldiel, Mordecai. Diplomat Heroes of the Holocaust. (Jersey City, NJ: KVAV, 2007).

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Sanders, Ronald. Shores of Refuge: A Hundred Years of Jewish Emigration. (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1988).

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Shatzkes, Pamela. Holocaust and Rescue: Impotent or Indifferent? Anglo-Jewry 1938-1945.  (London: Palgrave, 2002).

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Tec, Nechama. When Light Pierced the Darkness: Christian Rescue of Jews in Nazi Occupied Poland. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).

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Tory, Avraham.  Surviving the Holocaust: The Kovno Ghetto Diary.  (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Univresity Press, 1990).

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___________________________________

[1] USHMM.org

[2] Hilberg, 1985, pp. 1201-1220; Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799

[3] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” pp. 137-145; Hilberg, 1985;

[4] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” pp. 137-145; Hilberg, 1985; USHMM.org.

[5] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” pp. 137-145.

[6] This figure was arrived at by adding the estimated number of survivors by country and Jews who were present in neutral countries in 1933.  This presumes survival of Jews who were in neutral countries, e.g., that they did not return to Nazi-occupied territory.  Many left Europe from neutral countries to other parts of the world, including the United States, Canada, South America, China, Australia, etc.

[7] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799-1802

[8] Bauer, 1974; Bauer, 1981; Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, Annual Reports, 1933-1945, “Aiding Jews Overseas.”

[9] Opinion cited, official at Yad Vashem.

[10]  Prekerowa in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v., “Aid to Jews by Poles,” pp. 9-12.

[11]  Hilberg, 1985

[12]  Robinson, 1972

[13] Prekerowa in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v., “Aid to Jews by Poles,” pp. 9-12.

[14] American Jewish Committee (AJC) Yearbooks, 1933-1947; American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, Aiding Jews Overseas: Reports of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1939-1942; American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, The Rescue of Stricken Jews in a World at War, December 1943; Bauer, 1981.

[15] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” p. 1799; Ben-Yakov, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Bulgaria,” pp. 270-272; Bar-Zohar, 1998; Chary, 1970; Miller, 1975; Orem, 1968

[16] Jelinek, in Laqueur,2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Yugoslavia” pp. 711-712

[17] Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II).

[18] Bar-Zohar, 1998; Chary, 1970; Paldiel, 2007

[19] Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 145, states 591 lost; Sarner,1997

[20] Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II).

[21] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799-1800; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 145, states 116 lost; Flender, 1980; Goldberger, 1987; Valentin, 1953; Werner, 2002; Yahil, 1969

[22] Yahil, 1969.

[23] Bertelsen, 1954; Levine, 2000; Yahil, 1969.

[24] Bertelsen, 1954; Flender,1980; Goldberger, 1987; Valentin, 1953; Werner, 2002; Yahil, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Denmark,” pp. 362-365

[25] Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Denmark: Historical Introduction,” pp. xlix-lii, 61-61

[26] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia the Holocaust of, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799-1800; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Finland,” pp.  204-206; Rautkallio,1987; Svensson.

[27] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799, 1801; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 145; Carpi, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Italy,” pp. 333-339; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1221; Michaelis in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Italy” pp. 725-726; Michaelis, 1978, Zuccotti, 1987

[28] Poliakov and Sabille, 1955

[29] Poliakov and Sabille, 1955

[30] Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Italy,” 345-414; Rivlin, in Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Italy: Historical Introduction,” pp. lxxvii-lxxxix.

[31] Alfieri, 1948; Caracciolo, 1986; Carpi, 1990; Carpi, 1994; Carpi, 1981; Carpi, 1977; Carpi, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Italy,” pp. 333-339; Herzer, 1989; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1221; Michaelis in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Italy” pp. 725-726; Michaelis, 1978; Poliakov & Sabille, 1955; Steinberg, 1990; Verax, 1944; Zuccotti, 1987.

[32] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799-1800; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 145, states 76,000 were lost; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1221; Marrus, 1981; Ryan, 2003; Weinberg, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “France,” p. 219.

[33] Lazare, 2003, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: France; Marrus, 1981.

[34] Bankier, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “German Jewry,” p. 241; Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799-1800; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 145, states 144,000 were lost; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1221; Kukla, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Germany,” p. 574 states 365,000 German Jews emigrated, 300,000 (rounded) Jews were saved, 200,00 (rounded) were lost;

[35] Bauer, 1981; Halamish, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Refugees,” p. 522; Dwork, 2009; Marrus, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Refugees,” pp. 1234-1240.

[36] Halamish, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Refugees,” p. 520

[37] Halamish, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Refugees,” p. 521

[38] Fraenkel & Gutman, in Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v. “Germany: Historical Introduction,” pp. lii-lxiii; Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v. “Germany,” pp. 66-167.

[39] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799-1800; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 145, states 48,767 were lost; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1221

[40] Fraenkel, 1967; Moser,1975; Rosenkranz, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Austria,” pp. 131-132, states 65,000 Austrian Jews perished

[41] Borut, in Bender & Weiss, 2007, Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v. “Historical Introduction,” p. xviii; Bender & Weiss, 2007, Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v. “Austria,” pp. 1-36

[42] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799-1800; Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Estonia,” p. 164; Garrard, in Lacquer, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. pp. “Russian and the Soviet Union” pp. 583,589; 2001 Hilberg, 1985, p. 1221

[43] Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II).

[44] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799, 1802; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 145, states 2,100,000 lost; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1220

[45] Althshuler, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Soviet Union,” pp. 1383-1384; Marrus, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Refugees,” p. 1228

[46] Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II).

[47] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” p. 1799; Warmbrunn, Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Belgium,” pp. 59-60, 145 states 48,000 lost; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1220

[48] Michman, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Belgium,” 161, 165; Michman, 1998

[49] Michman, 2005, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Belgium; Paldiel, 2007

[50] Abramsen, 1981; Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799, 1801; Johansen, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Norway,” pp. 446, states 736 lost; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1220

[51] Johansen, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Norway,” pp. 451; Koblik, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Sweden,” pp. 615-616

[52] Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Norway: Historical Introduction,” pp. xc-xci, 417-421

[53] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” p. 1799, 1801; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 145; Ioanid, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Romania,” pp. 577-580; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1220 states 270,000 lost

[54] Ancel, 1984 Ancel, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Romania: Jews during the Holocaust, p. 1297

[55] Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II).

[56] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799, 1801; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 145, states 720 lost; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1220

[57] Zariz, in Gutman, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Luxembourg,” pp. 926-928

[58] Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Luxembourg,” p. 416

[59] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799-1800; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 145, states 102,000 lost; Warmbrunn, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Netherlands,” pp.437, 442; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1220

[60] Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, pp. 80-81.

[61] Michman, J., in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Netherlands,” pp. 1045, 1055

[62] Michman & Flim, 2004, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: The Netherlands (Volumes 1 & 2).

[63] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” p. 1799-1800; Jelinek, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Bohemia and Moravia, Protectorate of,” p.78

[64] Fatran, in Gutman, 2007, Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations, s.v. “Czech Republic.”

[65] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” pp. 1799-1800; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 145, states 559,250 lost; Braham, 1981; Cohen, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Hungary,” pp.317, 320-321 states 564,000 lost, 64,000 lost before the German occupation; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1220

[66] Reuveni, in Bender & Weiss, 2007, Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations, s.v. “Hungary: Historical Introduction,” pp. lxiv-lxviii; Bender & Weiss, 2007, Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations, s.v. “Hungary,” pp. 173-344

[67] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” p. 1799; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1220; Jelinek, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Yugoslavia,” states pre-war population at 71,000- 82,000 Jews. 12,000 Jews were in Serbia, 11,000 lost, 25,000 Jews were in Croatia, 20,000 lost, 20,000 Jews were in Vojvovod, 17,000 lost, 1,500 Jews in Slovenia, 1,300 lost, 14,00 Jews in Bosnia- Herzegovina, 10,000 lost, in Bulgarian controlled Macedonia 700 Jews survived, Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 145

[68] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” p. 1799; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1220

[69] Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II).

[70] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” p. 1799; Jelinek, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Yugoslavia,” p. 706, states prewar Jewish population of Yugoslavia was between 71,000-82,000 Jews, and the number of Jews murdered was 11,000 in Serbia, 20,000 in Croatia and Slavonia, 17,000 in Vojvodina, 1,300 in Slovenia, 10,000 in Bosnia-Herzegovina, 7,000-7,200 in Macedonia; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1220, Rothkirchen, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Slovenia” p.597

[71] Jelinek & Rozett, in Kerem, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Slovakia,” and “Slovak Jewish Rescue Committee,” pp. 1364-1370; Fuchs, 1984; Dagan, 1968-1984; Rothkirchen, 1961

[72] Fatran, in Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Slovakia: Historical Introduction,” pp. xcii-cx; Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Slovakia,” 423-512

[73] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” p. 1799-1800; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1220

[74] Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II), s.v., “Greece.”

[75] Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II), s.v., “Greece.”

[76] Bowman, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Greece,” pp. 614-616; Kerem, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Athens,” pp. 104-105; Carpi, 1981

[77] Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II).

[78] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” p. 1799; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1220

[79] Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II).

[80] Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” p. 1799; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p.145; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1220

[81] Bender & Krakowski, 2004, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Poland (Volumes 1 & 2)

[82] Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 141

[83] Halamish, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Refugees,” p. 522

[84] Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Great Britain,” pp. 168-172

[85] Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p.141

[86] Fralon, 2000; Paldiel, 2007; Paldiel, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v., “Aristides de Sousa Mendes.”

[87] Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Portugal,” p. 422

[88] Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 141

[89] Avni, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, “Spain, General Survey, Jewish Refugees in Spain,” pp. 390-394

[90] Payne in Gutman, 1990, The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Spain”, pp. 1390-1391

[91] Anvi, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Turkey,” pp. 601-603; Payne in Gutman, 1990, The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Spain”, pp. 1390-1391; Leshem, 1969, pp. 231-256

[92] Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Spain,” p. 513

[93] Koblik, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Sweden,” pp. 614-616; Yahil, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Sweden,” pp. 1437-1440

[94] Koblik, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Sweden,” p. 617

[95] Koblik, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Sweden,” p. 616

[96] Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, p. 1437; Koblik, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Sweden,” pp. 614-618

[97] Yahil, 1969; Levine, 1998

[98] USHMM.org

[99] Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Sweden,” pp. 514-517

[100] Yahil, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, “Switzerland,” pp. 1441-1444

[101] Carlgrew, 1977; Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, pp. 1441, 1443; Hasler,1969; Levine, 1998

[102] Bornstein, in Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Switzerland: Historical Introduction,” pp. cxiv-cxvii; Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Switzerland,” pp. 518-527

[103] Gutman, 1990; Benz, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Death Toll,” p. 141

[104] Rubin, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Turkey,” pp. 641-643

[105] Ofer, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, “Rescue Committee of the Jewish Agency in Turkey,” pp. 1259-1262

[106] Note: Turkish Consul Selahattin Ülkümen save 40 Jews from deportation from the German occupied island of Rhodes.  Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Turkey,” p. 528

[107] Altshuler, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust s.v. “Soviet Union,” p. 1383

[108] Rosenkranz in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Austria,” p. 131 Wahrhaftig, 1988

[109] Kranzler, 1976; Sakamoto, 1998; Wahrhaftig, 1988

[110] Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust; Sakamoto, 1998; Wahrhaftig, 1988; Zuroff, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, “Rescue of Polish Jews from East Asia,” pp. 1263-1264; Zuroff, 1979; Zuroff, 1984

[111] Bertelsen, 1954; Goldberger, 1987; Flender,1980; Valentin, 1953; Werner, 2002; Yahil, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Denmark,” pp. 362-365; Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Denmark: Historical Introduction,” pp. xlix-lii, 61-61

[112] Ben-Yakov, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Bulgaria,” pp. 270-272; Bar-Zohar, 1998; Bauer & Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Estimated Losses in the Holocaust,” p. 1799; Chary, 1970; Miller, 1975; Orem, 1968; Note: King Boris’ role in halting the deportation remains controversial and uncertain.

[113] Koblik, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Sweden,” pp. 614-616; Yahil, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Sweden,” pp. 1437-1440; Levine, Paul A. From Indifference to Activism: Swedish Diplomacy and the Holocaust: 1938-1944. (Uppsala, Sweden: 1998).

[114] Fatran, in Gutman, 2007, Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations, s.v. “Czech Republic.”

[115] George Damaskinos has been recognized by Yad Vashem as Righteous Among the Nations; Bowman, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Greece,” pp. 614-616; Kerem, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Athens,” pp. 104-105; Carpi, 1981; Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II); Paldiel, 2007, pp. 89-92

[116] Princess Alice of Greece has been recognized by Yad Vashem as Righteous Among the Nations; Bowman, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Greece,” pp. 614-616; Kerem, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Athens,” pp. 104-105; Carpi, 1981; Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II); Paldiel, 2007, pp. 6-7

[117] Michman, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Belgium,” 161, 165; Michman, 1998

[118] Queen Mother Elena of Romania has been recognized by Yad Vashem as Righteous Among the Nations; Ancel, 1984 Ancel, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Romania: Jews during the Holocaust, p. 1297; Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II).

[119] Koblik, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Sweden,” pp. 614-616; Yahil, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Sweden,” pp. 1437-1440; Levine, Paul A. From Indifference to Activism: Swedish Diplomacy and the Holocaust: 1938-1944. (Uppsala, Sweden: 1998).

[120] Braham, 1981; Levai, 1948.

[121] Alfieri, 1948; Caracciolo, 1986; Carpi, 1990; Carpi, 1994; Carpi, 1981; Carpi, 1977; Carpi, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Italy,” pp. 333-339; Herzer, 1989; Hilberg, 1985, p. 1221; Michaelis in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Italy” pp. 725-726; Michaelis, 1978; Poliakov & Sabille, 1955; Steinberg, 1990; Verax, 1944; Zuccotti, 1987.

[122] Koblik, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Sweden,” pp. 614-616; Yahil, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Sweden,” pp. 1437-1440; Levine, Paul A. From Indifference to Activism: Swedish Diplomacy and the Holocaust: 1938-1944. (Uppsala, Sweden: 1998).

[123] Braham, 1981; Carpi, 1977; Carpi 1981; Carpi 1990; Carpi 1994; Paldiel, 2007

[124] Braham, 1981; Cesarani, 1997; Levai, 1948; Levai, 1988; Tschuy, 2000

[125] Anger, 1996; Berg; 1949; Ben-tov, 1988; Braham, 1981; Favaz,1999; Langlet, 1946; Levai, 1988, Paldiel, 2007; Runberg, 2003; Tschuy, 2000; Wallenberg, 1995

[126] Gurr, Lambert, 1974; Cohen, 1986

[127] Braham, 1981; Paldiel, 2007; Tschuy, 2000.

[128] Braham, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Relief and Rescue Committee of Budapest,” pp. 1250-1254; Braham, 1981; Cohen, 1986; Rozett, 1987

[129] Paldiel, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Gabor Sztehlo,” pp. 1449-1450; Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, p. 326; Paldiel, 2007

[130] Bauer, 1974; Bauer, 1981; American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, Annual Reports, 1933-1947

[131] Final Report of the War Refugee Board (WRB), 1946; Morse, 1967; Wyman, 1984; Wyman, 1996

[132] Hurwitz, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Fort Ontario,” pp. 503-504

[133] Bar-Zohar, 1998; Chary, 1970; Ancel in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Bulgaria,” pp. 270-272

[134] Bar-Zohar, 1998; Chary, 1970; Ancel in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Bulgaria,” pp. 270-272; Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II); Paldiel, 2007

[135] Levai, 1965; Ancel in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Alexander Safran”, pp. 1322-1323

[136] Bauer, 1981; Fuchs, 1984; Neumann, 1958; Rothkirchen, 1961; Rothkirchen, 1979; Jelinek and Rozett in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Slovakia” pp. 1367-1368; Rozett, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, “Pracovná Skupina,” pp. 1183-1185; Kless, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Michael Dov Weissmandel,” pp. 1440-1441

[137] Alfieri, 1948; Carpi, 1970; Carpi, 1972; Carpi, 1981; Carpi, 1994; Carpi in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Aid to Jews by Italians”, 729-730; Caracciolo, 1986 Herzer, 1989; Michaelis, 1978 Poliakov and Sabille, 1955; Verax [Roberto Ducci], 1944; Zuccotti,1987

[138] Ryan, 1996; Lowrie, 1963; Subak, 2010

[139] Bentwich, 1956; Shatkzkes, 2003

[140] Della Rocca, 1987; Final Report of the War Refugee Board, 1946; Hirschman,1948; Hirschman,1962: Morley, 1980; Papers of Ambassador Laurence Steinhardt, Library of Congress and National Archives, Washington, DC

[141] Carlgren, 1977; Koblik, 1988; Levine, 1998

[142] Bernadotte, 1945; Persson, 2009; Svenson, 1949

[143] Fralon, 2000; Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, p. 422; Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, p. 422 ; Paldiel, 2007

[144] Bertelsen, 1954; Flender, 1980; Werner, 1946; Yahil, 1969; Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Denmark: Historical Introduction,” pp. xlix-lii, “Denmark,” 61-61

[145] Bowman, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Greece,” pp. 614-615; Ben, 1985; Molho, 1965; Bender & Weiss, 2011, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part II); Mazower, 1993

[146] Michman, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “The Netherlands,” p. 1054; Michman estimates more than 6,000 Jews were aided by Calmeyer. Yad Vashem puts the figure at 3,000; Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Germany,” pp. 80-81; Moore, 1997; Paldiel, 2007

[147] Bartoszewski,1969; Gutman, 1987; Bender & Krakowski, 2004, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Poland (Volume II), pp. 702.

[148] Kranzler, 2000

[149] Hallie, 1979; Lazare, 2003, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: France, pp. 529-530

[150] Michman, D. in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Belgium,” p. 167; Michman, 1998; Michman, 2005, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Belgium, pp. 194-195

[151] Paldiel, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Joseph André,” p. 44

[152] Michman, J. in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “The Netherlands,” p. 1055

[153] Paldiel, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, “Arnold Douwes,” pp. 401-402; Michman & Flim, 2004, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: The Netherland (Volume I), pp. 223-224

[154] Michman & Flim, 2004, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: The Netherland (Volume I), pp. 128-129

[155] Michman, 1998

[156] Leboucher,1969

[157] Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, p. 293.

[158] Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust. Lazare, 2004, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: France, p. 441

[159] Bender & Weiss, 2007, The Encyclopedia of the Righteous among the Nations: Europe (Part I) and Other Countries, s.v., “Germany,” pp. 95-96

[160] Sakamoto, 1998; Wahrhaftig, 1988 Some estimates of the number of visas exceeded 3,000

[161] Fry, 1945, Ryan, 1996

[162] Barros Horcasitas, 2001, DeSierra, 1998

[163] Warmbrunn, in Laqueur, 2001, The Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “Belgium: p. 59

[164] Gutman, 2007, in The Encyclopedia of the Righteous Among the Nations, pp. 169-170; Smith, 1999

[165] Crowe, 2004; Keneally, 1982

[166] Paldiel, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Anton Schmid,” p. 1333

[167] Abrahamsen, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v., “Norway: Norwegian Jewry in the Holocaust p.1067; Abrahamsen, 1991

[168] Avni, 1977; Michman, in Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. Joop Westerweel,” pp.1648-1649

[169] Gutman, 1990, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, s.v. “Matylda Getter.”

[170] Tomer, 1971